Contents
The Historical Background
The Qing Dynasty started in the mid-17th Century but it was in the 18th and 19th century that there was an aggressive push for westernization in China. This was due to many reasons including but not limited to:
1) The defeat of Chinese forces during the Opium Wars – which caused China to sign various unequal treaties with European powers like Britain and France.
2) The need for resources for China’s economy, particularly for tea trade with Britain.
3) The influence of Western ideas and culture through Christian missionaries.
4) The influx of European merchants and traders seeking to expand their market.
These factors all led to a push for westernization to open up China’s market and resources to other European nations. The treaties that were signed with these Western powers gave them extra-territorial rights, allowing them to conduct business and trade within China without interference from the local Chinese authorities. They also controlled the tariffs and taxes that Chinese traders had to pay, which gave them a significant advantage in the market.
In addition, the Western powers also gained control of key ports like Shanghai and Hong Kong, which were crucial for trade in China. This solidified their position and led to the establishment of trading posts and concessions in these areas.
The demand for Chinese goods like tea, silk, and porcelain also gave the European powers an upper hand in trade relations. This led to the establishment of opium cultivation in India by the British, which was then traded to China for silver. This trade not only netted the British enormous profits but also had detrimental social and economic effects on China.
Overall, the aggressive westernization of China was a result of various factors that led to the opening up of the Chinese market and resources to European powers. Despite resistance from the Chinese, they were unable to resist the superior military and economic power of the Western powers, leading to their domination of the Chinese economy and culture.
The First Opium War
The First Opium War, or the Anglo-Chinese War, was a conflict that erupted in 1839 between China and the British Empire over British merchants’ illegal trade of opium in China. China had banned opium imports, but British merchants continued to smuggle opium into China, causing widespread addiction and social problems. The Chinese government tried to halt the trade by confiscating and destroying British opium, but the British government viewed it as an attack on its trading rights and responded with military action.
The British Royal Navy was vastly superior to the Chinese navy, and their advanced weaponry allowed them to easily defeat the Chinese forces. The Treaty of Nanking was signed in 1842, which effectively ended the war and ceded Hong Kong to the British Empire. The treaty also opened up several Chinese ports for British trade and granted British citizens extraterritoriality, meaning they were exempt from Chinese law and could only be tried by British authorities.
The First Opium War was a significant event in Chinese history as it marked the beginning of the “Century of Humiliation,” the period in which China suffered from foreign imperialism and exploitation. The treaty effectively granted Western powers greater trading rights in China, and other foreign powers followed Britain’s lead in seeking unequal treaties with China.
The impact of opium trade in China was also significant, as it caused widespread addiction and social disruption. The opium trade severely damaged the Chinese economy, and the Chinese government would later launch a campaign against opium use, resulting in the Opium Wars and ultimately leading to China’s modernization and transformation into a republic.
Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
The Treaty of Nanjing, also known as the Treaty of Nanking, was a significant event in China’s relations with the Western powers. The treaty marked the end of the First Opium War and was signed by China and Britain on August 29, 1842. The signing of the treaty marked the beginning of a new era in China’s relationship with the Western world, as it granted the British extensive trading rights in China and forced China to open four new treaty ports.
The Treaty of Nanjing was signed after a five-year-long conflict between China and Britain over trade and commerce. At the heart of the conflict was the British demand for China to open up its markets to British goods. China, which had a closed economy, was reluctant to open up its ports to the British, but the British were determined to gain a foothold in China’s lucrative market.
The Treaty of Nanjing was signed under duress, as China lost the war and had little choice but to accept the British demands. The treaty granted the British “most favoured nation” status and the right to establish consulates in China. It also opened up the ports of Canton, Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai to British trade and commerce.
Under the terms of the treaty, the British were given the right to trade freely, without restrictions, throughout China. They were also granted access to the interior of the country and given permission to conduct missionary work in China. In return, China received a fixed sum of money as compensation for the opium destroyed during the war.
The Treaty of Nanjing was a significant turning point in the history of modern China. It marked the beginning of a new phase in China’s relationship with the West, as the country was forced to open up its markets to foreign trade and commerce. The treaty also set the precedent for other Western powers to demand similar trading rights in China.
In conclusion, the Treaty of Nanjing was a landmark event in China’s history, as it represented the beginning of China’s exposure to the modern world. The treaty opened up trade and commerce between China and the Western powers and marked the first time that China had to cede significant trading rights to a foreign power. The Treaty of Nanjing had far-reaching consequences, as it set the stage for further Western penetration into China and marked the beginning of a long period of Chinese weakness and humiliation.
Extraterritoriality
Extraterritoriality refers to the legal concept that foreign nationals in a country are exempt from that country’s laws and legal jurisdiction. In the case of China, this concept was introduced as a result of the treaties signed with western powers in the mid-19th century.
During this time, China was forced to open its ports to foreign trade, giving western powers the opportunity to establish a significant presence in the region. The Chinese government initially resisted this intrusion, but after a series of military defeats, they caved in and signed a series of unequal treaties which granted western powers vast concessions and exclusive trading rights.
One of the key provisions of these treaties was extraterritoriality. This meant that foreign nationals in China were no longer subject to Chinese law, but rather to the laws and legal systems of their own countries. This effectively placed them above Chinese citizens in terms of legal rights and protections.
The practical implications of this legal arrangement were significant. It meant that westerners who committed crimes in China could not be tried in Chinese courts, but rather in their own consular courts. This often led to a situation where foreign criminals were able to escape justice altogether, as their home countries could claim diplomatic immunity on their behalf.
Extraterritoriality also extended to civil disputes. Westerners in China could bring civil cases against Chinese citizens in their own consular courts, which were often seen as being more fair and impartial than Chinese courts. However, this also meant that Chinese citizens had very little recourse to justice when it came to disputes with foreigners, as they did not have the same legal protections as westerners.
The unequal nature of extraterritoriality was a major source of resentment amongst the Chinese population. They saw it as an affront to their sovereignty and a symbol of western domination. Chinese officials also expressed frustration at the difficulties they faced when trying to enforce their own laws in cases involving foreign nationals.
Extraterritoriality remained in effect in China until the mid-20th century, when the Chinese government began to reclaim its legal authority over foreign nationals. The process of reform was slow and difficult, but eventually led to the end of extraterritoriality and the establishment of a more equal legal system.
Today, the concept of extraterritoriality still exists in some parts of the world. Diplomatic immunity, for example, means that foreign diplomats are exempt from the laws of their host countries. However, this kind of legal privilege is much more limited than what was granted to westerners in China during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
The Second Opium War
The Second Opium War, also known as the Arrow War, started in 1856 when the British accused the Chinese of breaching the Treaty of Nanjing by suppressing British opium trade and other trading rights. The British and French forces attacked Chinese forts in Canton, which prompted the Chinese to declare war. The British and French launched a series of military campaigns, and the war lasted for four years, ending with the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
The Convention of Beijing was a peace treaty signed by the Chinese and British governments in 1860. Under the treaty, China had to pay reparations to the British and French and open more treaty ports to foreign trade. The most significant impact of the treaty was the legalization of opium trade in China, which had been banned before the war. The Chinese authorities agreed to permit British merchants to sell opium freely to Chinese consumers, providing a massive boost to the British economy.
The Second Opium War had profound long-term effects on China and the world. It marked the beginning of the decline of the Qing dynasty and the rise of imperialism in China. The treaty system imposed unequal treaties on China, which gave western powers greater trading rights and extraterritorial jurisdiction in China. These treaties also deprived China of its sovereignty and worsened the country’s economic, political, and social conditions, sparking anti-western sentiments amongst Chinese people.
Overall, the Second Opium War was a significant turning point in Chinese history, leading to the opening of China to Western powers and leaving a profoundly negative legacy for China’s future. The impact of this war still reverberates in China today and influences its political and economic relationship with Western powers.
The Unequal Treaties
Between 1850-1900, China was coerced into signing a series of treaties known as the unequal treaties. In the 19th century, the Western powers, especially Britain, France, Russia, and the United States, had greater economic advantages than China. The consequences of the unequal treaties were that China ceded territories, opened ports, and lowered trade barriers, which gave the Western powers extensive trading rights, privileges, and control over the Chinese economy.
One of the most memorable unequal treaties was the Treaty of Nanjing, signed in 1842, after the First Opium War. This treaty forced China to cede Hong Kong Island to Britain as well as pay for the costs of the war. Merchants and Christian missionaries also gained significant rights under the treaty, and the access they gained helped shape the future of Chinese society.
Europeans followed up on this unequal favor-seeking policy. In 1860, the British and French forces invaded Beijing and looted the Summer Palace, known as the Old Summer Palace, burning down one of the most beautiful landmarks in China. Soon afterward, they imposed another unequal treaty, the Convention of Beijing, which expanded foreign power in the country.
In addition to military and political coercion to sign treaties, diplomacy and trade provided opportunities for western powers to gain access to Chinese resources. Britain’s opium trade in China is a prime example of this. From 1839 to 1842, during the Opium War, British trade with China was nearly all in opium.
The flow of Chinese goods to the West has been interrupted in the past. Europeans were looking to obtain silk, tea, and porcelain from China, and when the Chinese Emperor refused to trade, the British responded with a plan to sell opium to China. Soon, the Chinese government fell into a state of addiction. British contractors were receiving large amounts of silver bullion for their supply of opium, which wiped-out the balance of trade between China and Britain.
The impact of the unequal treaties on the Chinese economy is significant. China’s import of foreign goods soared while her exports faced growing regulatory barriers. The Western powers gained extensive trading rights, and their powers were established through military coercion, political pressure, diplomacy, and trade.
As trade with the West increased, the Chinese economy became more fragile. Chinese farmers and artisans could not compete with cheap Western products, especially textiles. As a result, the Chinese economy gradually shifted from manufacturing to agriculture. For China, this meant a significant loss of economic power, shifting the East-West economic balance in favor of the West.
To sum up, during China’s history, there have been periods when the country has been more open to the outside world than others. During the mid-19th century, foreigners began to exploit China’s resources and market as they took advantage of China’s weakness to impose a series of unequal treaties. These treaties allowed foreign powers, particularly Britain and the United States, to establish control over China’s economy, extract resources, and enjoy preferential treatment in trade.
Military Aggression
During the mid-19th century, the Opium Wars broke out, which were fought between China and Britain. The British were seeking greater access to China’s markets for their goods, including opium, which China had prohibited. British troops defeated China’s outdated military and forced upon them the Treaty of Nanking, which opened up five ports to British trade and ceded Hong Kong Island to Britain. This display of military might opened up China to greater foreign influence.
Unequal Treaties
The Treaty of Nanking set a pattern for unequal treaties that China was forced to sign with other western powers. These treaties granted western powers numerous trade concessions and special privileges that no native Chinese could obtain. For example, the Treaty of Tientsin (1860) sparked by the Second Opium War, gave westerners legal immunity and extraterritoriality, which meant that they were subject to the laws of their own countries and not of China’s. Western powers also obtained the right to freely navigate China’s rivers, which allowed them to transport goods more cheaply. These concessions gave western powers an unfair advantage over China’s own merchants and established the precedent of foreign dominance in China.
Blatant Disregard for China’s Sovereignty
Throughout their dealings with China, western powers did not recognize China’s sovereignty over its own territory and people. They conducted their own economic and political affairs within China and displayed no respect for the Chinese way of life. This disregard was exemplified by the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), where Chinese rebels fought against foreign powers’ influence in China. In response, an Eight Nation Alliance comprising of western and Japanese troops invaded China and suppressed the rebellion, further weakening China’s sovereignty. The message was clear: foreign powers had the right to do as they pleased in China without ramifications.
Impact on China’s Economy
The impact on China’s economy from western powers’ aggression and exploitation was profound and far-reaching. China was forced to open its markets to foreign goods while its own industries were destroyed. Western products flooded China’s markets at prices that native industries could not compete with. As a result, China became dependent on foreign imports and lost its self-sufficiency. Western powers imposed heavy taxes on the goods that they were exporting from China and were assisted by Chinese corrupt officials, which further depleted China’s resources.
Long-Lasting Effects on China’s Society
The long-lasting effects on China’s society from western powers’ interference are still visible today. The opium that was introduced by western powers became a social epidemic that ruined lives and weakened China’s society. Western powers brought with them a new religion and culture that conflicted with China’s own, leading to a loss of traditional values. Western education was sought after by many Chinese, which created pockets of westernized, educated individuals, who were alienated from their own society. Moreover, the weakening of China’s sovereignty contributed to a century of political and social turmoil that only stabilized with the triumph of communism.
Conclusion
Western powers’ greater trading rights in China came at a great cost to China’s sovereignty, economy, and society. Military aggression, unequal treaties, and blatant disregard for China’s way of life paved the way for a century of exploitation and interference that still has far-reaching consequences. The pattern of unequal treaties and foreign economic dominance in China has lingered on to this day. Even though China is now a world superpower, the memory of its past subjugation by western powers is still very much alive.
